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Do you feel like you peaked academically in middle school? Like it all came easily – but then, enter high school, and suddenly your brain isn’t doing its thing anymore? Well, you’re not alone.  Studying is not easy, especially if you don’t know how to study effectively. So, let’s break it down: here are some evidence-based methods of studying that really will help you ace every test.  First and foremost , cut the distractions. That means: no multitasking! It’s easy to get distracted while studying; which is why, to optimize your study time, try to set aside any possible distractions. Sometimes, that means actively avoiding the use of electronics to study (eg. writing your notes by hand, or using a physical textbook).  If you absolutely need your phone with you – in case of emergencies (or, if you’re like me and you’ve developed a case of separation anxiety from your beloved device) – even something as simple as setting it a foot away from your hand can help.  There are also a number of apps you can download to help with this. One such example is Flora (image to the right), which motivates you by rewarding every period of focus with a (virtual) tree. With enough focus periods, you can grow a whole garden!  This next tip may feel counterintuitive, but do not read (and reread) your notes or the textbook. In simply rereading your notes, you are not interacting with the new information – meaning, it’s likely going to slip out of your brain faster.  Interacting with the material might look like making flashcards, teaching (or pretending to teach) the material, and for classes such as math and science, doing tons of practice problems.  Third, make use of spaced repetition techniques. Our brains need time – and repetition – for new knowledge to seep into your long-term memory. Which means that one long study session is not enough for deep learning; instead, shorter, more frequent study sessions may improve retention of material. This also brings up another important point: long study sessions are not always better. Studying for long periods of time can not only lead to boredom, but it can also tire the brain. Intensive study sessions often last between 30-40 minutes and involve active studying methods which engage your brain with the material. These study sessions are more effective than three hour study sessions (which very likely include frequent scrolling-breaks). For more information, check out The Study Cycle .  With these three essential study tips, you are maximizing information retention while minimizing time wasted – perfect for the upcoming school year!  Sources: Jones, R. P. (2020, November 13). The neuroscience of effective studying . Student Services. https://students.ubc.ca/ubclife/neuroscience-effective-studying The Study Cycle . (n.d.). Learning Center. https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/the-study-cycle/ University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2019). Studying 101: Study Smarter Not Harder . Unc.edu . https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/studying-101-study-smarter-not-harder/ What Neuroscience Suggests to Better Your Study Habits . (2020). College of Natural Sciences. https://cns.utexas.edu/news/features/what-neuroscience-suggests-better-your-study-habits#:~:text=The%20brain%20does%2C%20however%2C%20benefit

Do you perceive sounds as colors? Numbers as musical notes? Or, perhaps, when you eat mac and cheese, the color purple brightens your mind. Studies show that an estimated 4.4% of the population experience these unique sensory crossovers (known as synesthesia)! While most people know of the more commonly shared examples of synesthesia (such as those listed above), it actually occurs in many more forms! For example: Day-color synesthesia, in which people associate or see a color for each day of the week; Mirror-touch synesthesia, in which people see something happen to someone else and physically feel it themselves (very strongly); , Auditory-tactile synesthesia, in which sounds cause people to feel touch-based sensations (such as pressure, pain, or temperature changes); and, Grapheme-color synesthesia, in which letters or numbers are also perceived as colors. As for the causes of synesthesia, before we dive into its brain-wiring, let’s look at three different types of synesthesia (classified according to how it is acquired): Developmental synesthesia is a term for those who were born with synesthesia. People with this type of synesthesia are classified as “neurodivergent”. Acquired synesthesia is formed as a result of brain damage; and the effects of this condition are less pronounced, and are likely to fade over time. Drug-induced synesthesia: in some cases, psychedelics can induce symptoms of synesthesia (especially ones that are hallucinogenic). Interestingly, however, these symptoms often depend on the emotional state of the person. Synesthesia came to the forefront of neuroscientific research in the late nineteenth century – and despite advancements in scientific knowledge, little is known about its brain mechanisms. However, multiple models have emerged to explain the different types of synesthesia; the three most prominent of these are the cross-activation model, cortical disinhibition, and the re-entrant feedback theory. The cross-activation theory (proposed by Ramachandran and Hubbard in 2001), which first emerged as a model to explain grapheme-color synesthesia (but can be expanded to other types as well), posits that direct connections between different areas of the brain cause sensory crossovers. In the case of grapheme-color synesthesia, the visual word form area (the part of your brain which processes word shapes) sits next to hV4 (as seen in Figure 1.1), a color processing region of the brain – and connections between these two regions cause the synesthete to associate word forms with colors. Figure 1.1 The disinhibition theory and the re-entrant theories, on the other hand, propose that synesthesia is a result of faulty inhibition. These theories suggest that when higher cortical areas of the brain (such as the parietal lobe), which are responsible for suppressing certain actions in lower cortical areas, fail to do so, non-relevant sensory pathways are activated. These non-relevant sensory pathways are those “additional” senses that synesthetes experience. It is also possible that there is no single answer. Perhaps different types of synesthesia each are caused by their own unique neural mechanisms! Or maybe, multiple neural mechanisms work together to produce a single type of synesthesia. The possibilities are endless! The brain is unique and incredibly complex – and the example of synesthesia demonstrates just how much. References A. Carmichael, D., & Simner, J. (2013, September 11). The immune hypothesis of synesthesia. Frontiersin.org; Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00563/full Carpenter, S. (2001, March). Everyday fantasia: the World of Synesthesia. Https://Www.apa.org. https://www.apa.org/monitor/mar01/synesthesia Hubbard, E. M., & Ramachandran, V. S. (2005). Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Synesthesia. Neuron, 48(3), 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.10.012 Hupé, J.-M., & Dojat, M. (2015, March 31). A critical review of the neuroimaging literature on synesthesia. Frontiersin.org; Frontiers . https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00103/full Synesthesia: Opening the Doors of Perception – Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science. (n.d.). Sites.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved January 17, 2024, from https://sites.dartmouth.edu/dujs/2010/05/30/synesthesia-opening-the-doors-of-perception/#:~:text=Disinhibition%20of%20Feedback&text=This%20hypothesis%20states%20that%20in

The human brain is unlike any other! It has the ability to form eloquent language, to perform complex reasoning and be self-aware. But in order to truly understand these extraordinary abilities, it is vital to understand how these are formed. One of the greatest tools that we use to understand the changes that our brain has gone through is comparison… yes, to monkeys. Comparing our own brains to primates’ brains allows us to understand the evolutionary changes that have possibly occurred – and what they mean for our complex abilities. Our brains differ structurally from other primate brains: a fact that helps us understand the structural changes our brains have gone through over time. These include changes in size, organization, and density (of different types of cells). So, let’s explore and understand each of these changes! Compared to other primates, human brains are large! In fact, data collected shows the difference between the brain sizes of nine different species of primates and homo sapiens (humans). The numbers in the image to the left show the size of the brain in cubic centimeters. With a whopping difference of 961 cubic centimeters between the size of the human brain and the largest primate brain in the data set, it becomes quite clear to us that indeed, our brains are much larger than primate brains. So could this, then be the reason for our advanced cognitive capabilities? Bigger brain equals bigger smarts? Well… not quite. Think about it! Extending our knowledge beyond primates, there are other animals who have brains that are larger than ours – elephants, for instance. But elephants do not have superior cognitive capabilities to us. So, our advanced cognitive abilities can’t only be based on larger brain size. The change in brain size, however, does tell us about size increases in specific areas of the brain. For example, compared to one species of primate (rhesus macaques), humans have a larger parietal lobe, and more sections to process three-dimensional shapes. Similarly, we can see that the frontopolar cortex, Broca’s area, and the anterior insular cortex are about 6 times larger in humans than in chimpanzees. Increased size of specific parts of the brain means that our brain has a larger area (or, in some cases, more areas) dedicated to specific functions. It is also important to note that while structural changes in the brain tell us a lot, similarities do too. The motor cortex and the primary visual cortex are much more similar in size between species of primates – and indeed, when comparing the motor and visual capabilities of humans with other primates’, they remain relatively similar. Apart from changes in size, neuron density also tells us a lot. The bigger the brain gets, the less dense the neurons are packed – which leaves space for dendrites, axons, synapses, and glial cells (structures which receive and transmit information between brain cells and maintain neurons). Meaning, that the brain has more space for its neuron structures to establish more efficient connectivity patterns! The image to the left shows the structure of a neuron, including dendrites, axons and synapses. Interestingly, gene expression also contributes to humans’ advanced capabilities! Studies have shown that certain genes are expressed to a larger extent in the human brain (compared with the brains of primates); particularly, genes linked with synaptic transmission and plasticity (neurons’ ability to communicate with each other and form connections over time). Meaning, that humans have more of the genes which allow our neurons to work quickly and efficiently. The changes that have been described above distinguish our brains from primates’ brains – and to a larger extent, signify the changes that our brain has gone through over time. And these same changes have contributed to the development of our complex cognitive abilities, which are at the very root of our human experience. So, as you read this article, make sure to think of your incredible brain – and its awesome evolutionary developments! References Verendeev, A., & Sherwood, C. C. (2017). HUMAN BRAIN EVOLUTION. Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 16, 41–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.02.003 What Are the Parts of the Nervous System? (2018, October 1). https://www.nichd.nih.gov/ https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/neuro/conditioninfo/parts Isler, K., Kirk, E. C., Miller, J., Albrecht, G. A., Gelvin, B. R., & Martín, R. D. (2008). Endocranial volumes of primate species: scaling analyses using a comprehensive and reliable data set. Journal of Human Evolution, 55(6), 967–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.004 Decoding brain evolution. (2017, July 6). Harvard Medical School. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/decoding-brain-evolution